Modern thinkers in Islam
MUHAMMED IBN ‘ABD AL-WAHHAB (1703-1792)
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (born 1703, ʿUyaynah, Arabia [now in Saudi Arabia]—died 1792, Al-Dirʿiyyah) was a theologian and founder of the Wahhābī movement, which attempted a return to the principles of Islam as practiced by its early forebears (salaf).
Having completed his formal education in the holy city of Medina, in Arabia, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb lived abroad for many years. He taught for four years in Basra, Iraq, and in Baghdad he married an affluent woman whose property he inherited when she died. In 1736, in Iran, he began to teach against what he considered to be the extreme ideas of various exponents of Sufi doctrines. On returning to his native city, he wrote the Kitāb al-tawḥīd (“Book of the Oneness [of God]”), which is the main text for Wahhābī doctrines. The centrality of the tawḥīd principle to his way of thinking led adherents to characterize themselves as muwaḥḥidūn, meaning “unitarians” or “those who assert tawḥīd.”
ʿAbd al-Wahhāb’s teachings have been characterized as puritanical and traditional, representing the early era of the Islamic religion. He rejected sources of doctrine (uṣūl al-fiqh) apart from the Qurʾān and the Sunnah (traditions of Muhammad). He made a clear stand against traditions and practices not rooted in these two sources, characterizing them as innovations (bidʿah) in Islamic faith. He insisted that the original grandeur of Islam could be regained if the Islamic community would return to the principles enunciated by the Prophet Muhammad. Wahhābī doctrines, therefore, do not allow for an intermediary between the faithful and God and condemn any such practice as polytheism (shirk). The decoration of mosques, the veneration of saints, and even the smoking of tobacco were condemned.
When the preaching of these doctrines led to controversy, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb was expelled from ʿUyaynah in 1744. He then settled in Al-Dirʿiyyah, capital of Muhammad ibn Saud, a ruler of the Najd (now in Saudi Arabia) and the progenitor of the Saud dynasty.
Wahhābī, any adherent of the Islamic reform movement founded by Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb in the 18th century in Najd, central Arabia, and adopted in 1744 by the Saudi family. In the 20th and 21st centuries, Wahhābism is prevalent in Saudi Arabia and Qatar.
The term Wahhābī is used primarily by outsiders to distinguish the movement; adherents often refer to themselves as salafīs (“followers of the pious forebears”), a term used by followers of other Islamic reform movements as well. They characterize themselves as muwaḥḥidūn (“unitarians”), a term derived from their emphasis on the absolute oneness of God (tawḥīd). They reject all acts that they see as implying polytheism (shirk), such as visiting tombs and venerating saints, and advocate a return to the original teachings of Islam as incorporated in the Qurʾān and the Sunnah (traditions of Muhammad), with condemnation of all other sources of doctrine (uṣūl al-fiqh) as innovations (bidʿah). Wahhābī theology and jurisprudence—based, respectively, on the teachings of the theologian Ibn Taymiyyah and the legal school of Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal—stress literal interpretation of the Qurʾān and Sunnah and the establishment of an Islamic society based only on these two bodies of literature.
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb began promulgating his teachings in the oasis town of Ḥuraymilāʾ about 1740. Although his father was a Ḥanbalī jurist and his ideas were rooted in the Ḥanbalī school of law, they were rejected by local Ḥanbalī officials and he was expelled, first from Ḥuraymilāʾ and then from ʿUyaynah.
In 1744 he arrived in al-Dirʿiyyah, where his movement was encouraged by the emir, Muhammad ibn Saud. From then on, the political fortunes of the Wahhābī movement were closely allied to those of the Saudi dynasty. By the end of the 18th century, they had brought all of Najd under their control; attacked Karbala, Iraq, a holy city of the Shiʿi branch of Islam; and occupied Mecca and Medina in western Arabia. The Ottoman sultan brought an end to the first Wahhābī empire in 1818, but the sect revived under the leadership of the Saudi Fayṣal I. The empire was then somewhat restored until once again destroyed, at the end of the 19th century by the Rashīdiyyah of northern Arabia. The activities of Ibn Saud in the 20th century eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932 and assured Wahhābī religious and political dominance on the Arabian Peninsula.
In the late 20th and 21st centuries, the preeminence of the Wahhābī religious establishment has ensured that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia remains markedly more conservative than other states in the region. A large religious police force (known as the Muṭawwaʿūn) enforces strict codes of public behaviour—including, for example, mandatory observance of Islamic rituals and gender segregation.
Because Wahhābism prohibits the veneration of shrines, tombs, and sacred objects, many sites associated with the early history of Islam, such as the homes and graves of companions of Muhammad, were demolished under Saudi rule. Preservationists have estimated that as many as 95 percent of the historic sites around Mecca and Medina have been razed.
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Wahabism, which sought to purify Islam by returning to what it considered the original principles of the faith, has had a significant impact on the global Muslim community. Its prevalence and influence, especially in the modern era, can be attributed to a combination of historical, religious, and geopolitical factors.
Origins and Principles of Wahhabism
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) was an Islamic scholar and theologian who was deeply concerned about what he perceived as the declining state of Islam during his time. He believed that many Muslims had strayed from the true teachings of Islam as found in the Quran and Hadith (the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad). Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s interpretation emphasized strict monotheism (tawhid) and sought to eliminate practices he viewed as innovations (bid’ah) or superstitions, such as the veneration of saints and the use of intercessors in prayer.
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab was inspired by a desire to return to the original principles of Islam as practiced by its early followers, known as the Salaf. His teachings were heavily influenced by the 14th-century Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, who advocated for the purification of Islam by eliminating practices considered innovations, such as speculative theology and saint worship. Abd al-Wahhab’s emphasis on strict monotheism and rejection of practices not rooted in the Quran and Sunnah formed the core of his doctrine, which he articulated in his work, Kitab al-Tawhid (“Book of the Oneness [of God]”).
The Wahhabi movement began to take root in Saudi Arabia in the mid-18th century when Abd al-Wahhab formed an alliance with Muhammad ibn Saud, the ruler of Al-Diriyyah. This partnership, established around 1745, combined religious reform with political ambition, leading to the gradual expansion of Wahhabi influence across central Arabia. By 1765, significant portions of central and eastern Arabia were under Wahhabi control, although it took several decades for the movement to consolidate its power fully.
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s teachings spread beyond Saudi Arabia primarily through the alliance he formed with Muhammad ibn Saud in the mid-18th century. This alliance led to the establishment of the first Saudi state, which expanded through military conquests. The Saud family, with the support of Wahhabi doctrines, extended their control over much of the Arabian Peninsula, including the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, by the early 19th century.
Wahhabism, founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, has significantly impacted other Islamic movements and sects, primarily through its strict interpretation of Sunni Islam and its influence on Islamic fundamentalism. Wahhabism emphasizes a return to the original principles of Islam as practiced by the early Muslims, rejecting any innovations (bid’ah) not rooted in the Qur’an and Sunnah. This puritanical approach has influenced various Islamic movements, particularly those advocating for a return to traditional Islamic values.
One of the key impacts of Wahhabism is its contribution to the broader Islamic fundamentalist movement. Wahhabism shares characteristics with other fundamentalist movements, such as the Salafi movement, which also seeks to emulate the practices of the early Muslims (salaf). These movements often stress strict adherence to Islamic law and reject practices they view as innovations or deviations from true Islam.
Wahhabism has also influenced political Islam, as seen in its role in the establishment of the Saudi state, where it became the dominant religious ideology. The Saudi government’s promotion of Wahhabi teachings has extended its influence across the Islamic world, affecting various Islamic movements and sects. This influence is evident in the support for Wahhabi scholars and institutions, which has helped disseminate these teachings globally.
However, Wahhabism’s strict interpretation has also led to tensions with other Islamic sects, particularly Shi’a Muslims, who have faced persecution in regions where Wahhabism is dominant. The Saudi government’s restrictions on non-Wahhabi practices, such as Sufism and the celebration of the Prophet’s birthday, highlight the sectarian impact of Wahhabism within the broader Islamic community.
The spread of Wahhabism was further facilitated by the political and military campaigns of the Saudi state, which brought Wahhabi influence to regions such as Qatar, Bahrain, and parts of Oman. Additionally, the modern Saudi state, established in 1932, continued to promote Wahhabi teachings as part of its national identity, further spreading these doctrines through its influence in the Islamic world. The Saudi government’s support for Wahhabi scholars and institutions has also played a significant role in disseminating these teachings globally.
Rise of Wahabism
Wahhabism’s spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula was largely facilitated by the rise of Saudi Arabia as a powerful state, particularly after the discovery of oil in the region. The economic wealth generated from oil exports enabled Saudi Arabia to fund the dissemination of Wahhabi ideology globally. This included the construction of mosques and Islamic centers, the distribution of religious literature, and the provision of scholarships for students to study in Saudi Arabia.
The appeal of Wahhabism can also be attributed to its claim to authenticity and purity, which resonates with Muslims seeking a return to what they perceive as the unadulterated teachings of Islam. Additionally, Wahhabism’s emphasis on a unified Muslim identity and its critique of Western influence in Muslim societies have found a receptive audience in various parts of the Muslim world.
Adoption in Western Countries
In Western countries, the presence of Wahhabism is often linked to immigrant communities and the establishment of mosques and Islamic centers funded by Saudi Arabia. While Wahhabism is not the dominant form of Islam practiced by Muslims in the West, its presence is notable in certain communities. In some cases, Wahhabi teachings have appealed to young Muslims seeking a clear and structured religious identity in societies where they may face cultural and religious challenges.
However, the adoption of Wahhabism in the West has not been without controversy. Critics argue that its conservative interpretations can clash with the values of pluralism and multiculturalism prevalent in Western societies. Additionally, concerns have been raised about the potential for radicalization, although it is important to note that not all adherents of Wahhabism advocate for extremism.
In summary, Wahhabism’s influence on global Islam is a complex phenomenon shaped by historical alliances, economic power, and the search for religious authenticity. Its spread has been facilitated by Saudi Arabia’s strategic use of its wealth to promote its religious ideology. While Wahhabism has found followers in various parts of the world, including Western countries, its adoption is not uniform and often intersects with local cultural and social dynamics. As with any religious movement, its impact and interpretation can vary widely, reflecting the diverse contexts in which it is practice.